Question 17

College Answer

Most candidates provided a reasonable structured sequence of how a pulse oximeter generates a value. Nearly all candidates described the Beer-Lambert laws correctly, but few specifically described the basic principles of absorption spectrophotometry. Most candidates had a reasonable list of extrinsic factors that can interfere with pulse oximeter performance, but few described the intrinsic/inherent limitations of the device that can cause SpO2 to be different to SaO2, such as functional versus fractional saturation.

Discussion

• Principles fundamental to pulse oximetry
  • Different absorption of different light wavelengths by haemoglobin species
  • Isolation of the pulsatile arterial signal because of pulse-related changes in optical distance 
• Different light absorption by haemoglobin species:
  • Two wavelengths (660 and 940 nm) are used in pulse oximettry
  • Deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs more light at 660nm and oxyhaemoglobin absorbs more light at 940 nm.
• Quantification of haemoglobin species concentration
  • Beer Law: the concentration of a given solute in a solvent is determined by the amount of light that is absorbed by the solute at a specific wavelength
  • Thus, concentration of oxyhaemoglobin and deoxyhaemoglobin can be determined from their absorption of the two wavelengths
• Determination of pulsatile signal
  • Absorption-over-time signal from arterial blood is pulsatile, whereas signal from venous haemoglobin and tissue is not.
  • When the arteries pulsate, the distance travelled by light though them changes
  • One can therefore use Lambert's Law (equal parts in the same absorbing medium absorb equal fractions of the light that enters them).
  • Thus, one can compare the ratio of pulsatile and nonpulsatile absorbance to produce R, the ratio of absorbance at any given time 
  • R = (AC₆₆₀ / DC₆₆₀) / (AC₉₄₀/DC₉₄₀)
• Calibration with empirically measured data
  • R is meaningless unless it can be related to oxygen saturation;
  • A series of saturation measurements and R values have been collected from healthy individuals in the 100-75% saturation range, and extrapolated to 0%
  • This array of data is used by the pulse oximeter control circuit as a lookup table to p
• Correction for ambient light
  • The pulse oximeter LEDs strobe at a high frequency (400-900 Hz)
  • When the LED is off, the photometer measures the absorption of ambient light, and subtracts  this from the signal measured when the LEDs are on.
  • This eliminates the contribution of (most) ambient light
• Essential design elements of a pulse oximeter include:
  • LED light sources
  • A photometer
  • A control circuit
  • A user interfce with display and alarm functions
• Limitations of pulse oximetry are:
  • The inevitable difference with ABG oximetry due to processing artifact
  • Inability to detect PO₂ or discriminate between haemoglobin species e.g carboxyhaemoglobin (i.e. the pulse oximeter is incapable of discriminating between fractional saturation, the fraction of total haemoglobin which happens to be oxygenated, from functional saturation, the fraction of effective haemoglobin which is oxygenated and can participate in gas exchange.
  • Spurious results in the presence of carboxyhaemoglobin and methaemoglobin
  • Errors to detect pulse with poor perfusion, nonpulsatile ECMO flow or patient movement
  • Increasing inaccuracy in the extrapolated range of calibration values (low oxygen saturation, below 50%)

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